One challenge is that these two paradigms are rarely examined simultaneously in the same species or population. Despite decades of research on both of these paradigms, neither has provided a complete explanation for status-related differences in male health and immunity. Studies have also shown that chronic psychological stress tends to suppresses cell-mediated (Th-1) defences and enhance pro-inflammatory responses, and that Th-2 cells generally stimulate the production of pro-inflammatory IL-6, which transiently proliferates following exposure to physical and psychological stressors. Furthermore, in many societies, low social status in males is generally associated with poor health and elevated disease risk.
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